Agnew, R. (2002). Strain, personality traits, and delinquency: Extending general strain theory. Criminology, 40 (1), 43-70.

Agnew, R. (2002). Strain, personality traits, and delinquency: Extending general strain theory. Criminology, 40 (1), 43-70.

Addressing the major criticisms of Robert K. Merton’s strain theory, Agnew’s general strain theory (GTS) analyzes an individuals’ perceptions of strain rather than just the blockage of goals by a rigid social structure. For a brief overview of Merton’s strain theory see the annotation for Merton’s “Social Structure and Anomie.” Agnew’s GTS shifted stain theory’s focus from long-term goals to the more immediate desires of social beings. Agnew thus suggests that strain not only derives from the blockage of goals but rather three distinct forces generate social strain in an individual’s life:

others may (1) prevent individuals from achieving their positively valued goals, including monetary, status, and autonomy goals; (2) remove or threaten to remove positively valued stimuli . . .(3) present or threaten to present individuals with noxious or negatively valued stimuli. (p. 44).

Agnew’s GTS remains the most authoritative reiteration of Merton’s original framework and has been tested many time throughout the last decade. However, since it is a relatively new theory there is little empirical evidence of its validity. Agnew’s work has successfully stimulated new scholarly interest into social strain’s effect on criminal activity and should be on any bibliography discussing crime and social strain. Agnew’s GTS will provide the foundation for my own argument concerning Grand Theft Auto and will work perfectly alongside Merton’s work by adding to his original argument.

Merton, R. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3 (5), 672-682.

Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3 (5), 672-682.

Merton’s seminal essay of sociology outlines social strain theory as an intellectual framework that can explicate the cause of crime in America. Merton posits when social structures create aspirational references for the population at large and simultaneously restrict those aspirations for individuals within that population, criminal activity occurs on a considerable scale. When an individual desires more than he/she can possibly achieve he/she must cope by adapting into one of five modes of reaction: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Innovation, the mode most pertinent adaptation to criminal activity and my essay concerning Grand Theft Auto (GTA), occurs when an individual accepts the cultural aspirations but rejects the conventional means for their obtainment. Instead of working for the American dream, innovators turn to crime as a means of acquiring the material goods they desire but are unable to obtain due to a strained existence.

Merton's strain theory will work wonderfully in my analysis of GTA because the game focuses on Niko Bellic’s journey to acquire the American dream. Merton writing in the late 30’s used the concept of the American dream to construct his argument and claims when people cannot obtain the dream they may turn to crime instead. Certainly, the hip-hop culture Barrett, and Murray argue Rockstar appropriated to construct CJ’s universe in San Andreas express feelings of strain and the desire for innovation; 50 Cent’s album title, Get Rich or Die Trying, pretty much says as much. Albeit Merton’s theory is over seventy years old, it remains a founding framework in the field of criminology and has been recently revamped into Agnew’s General Strain Theory. It is important to read Merton in context with Agnew to evaluate the theory and address the frameworks' limitations.

Barrett, P. (2006). White thumbs, black bodies: Race, violence, and neoliberal fantasies in Grand Theft Auto. The Review of Education, Pedagogy, and C

Barrett, P. (2006). White thumbs, black bodies: Race, violence, and neoliberal fantasies in Grand Theft Auto. The Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 28, 95-119.

Paul Barrett’s article provides a thought-provoking analysis of Rockstar Games’ representation of the inner city African American experience in Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (GTA). Barrett suggests the game presents black bodies as a disposable commodity and reinforces negative racial stereotypes by attempting to define the essence “blackness.” Rockstar Games relies on hip-hop culture as the foundation for their appropriation of black society in GTA and embraces the danger, aggression, and violence in albums like 50 Cents’ Get Rich or Die Trying. Barrett concludes, “the implication [of theses games and albums] is that blackness is a style, something that can be taken on and off” (p. 100). Therefore, white players construct black culture as they see fit when playing GTA and black individuals playing the game must accept a dangerous neoliberal representations of their own culture.

Barrett’s article is very strong and provides a lot of evidence for my own argument. He delineates the social conflict evident in GTA and argues that the game implies that African Americans should accumulate wealth by any means necessary. The game—Barrett argues—“suggests that the problems that African Americans experience is due to individual failure” (p. 114). Thus, GTA portrays African American’s as inherently strained by society and endorses violence as an acceptable means for coping with a troubled life. The article works perfectly in context with the theoretical foundation laid out by Merton and Agnew and provides support for their (and my own) arguments. Although Barrett uses CJ of San Andreas as the focal point of his argument, the essay is extremely applicable to the imagery of immigration and social strain throughout Niko Bellic’s journey in GTA IV.